Information Processing Theories.

 

1. HISTORICAL EVOLUTION

Information processing theories refer to a current that considers the subject as asset in terms of explaining their behavior. A behavior, in principle, is not focused on external concepts but on the way of processing, addressing or analyzing information. It is a processing system from which some elements are capable of interacting with their environment, a system capable of comparing, classifying, storing and creating new structures of thought.

Information processing theories imply an overcoming of the behavioral vision. They involve elements and events that make knowledge to be approached differently.

The Geneva School arises with Piaget, and Eysenck, Cattell, Chomsky also appear ... All these authors question behaviorism, the explanation that was made previously about human behavior. They consider human behavior not only as something external and objective, but also as something internal and subjective. A moment of crisis is created that provokes observing the subject from another perspective because human behavior must be explained by something more than a response to a stimulus. Human behavior is no longer considered as something external and objective and it begins to be valued as something internal and subjective. Several currents of opposition to behaviorism are created:

• Geneva School: Defenders of PIAGET.
• Factorialists Group: Defenders of CATTEL and EYNSENCK.
• Soviet school: Defenders of LURIA and VIGOTSKY.

All of them try to study human behavior, giving it a subjective structure that refers to mental representations that try to explain the behavior of the individual.

For the factorialists they would be mental structures, for the Piagetians they would be cognitive structures (schemes) and for the Vygotskyans they are complex and mental structures conditioned by language and contact with the environment. All of them want to explain human behavior by conferring on it a subjective structure (a certain type of mind that operates with representations), considering that behavior is elaborated through and based on representations. For the factorialists, this structure will be formed by the mental faculties, for Piaget they will be cognitive structures (schemes, cognitive dissonance, balance, imbalance…). However, for Vygotsky the structures will be determined by language and social context.

In 1948, a series of authors, among them, Simon and Lashley, in a symposium indicated that the union with the behaviorist canons implies the impossibility of the scientific study of human behavior. The behaviors have to be organized and planned, they cannot come from outside the subject, but come from inside the subject. At this point is the moment when cognitive currents and artificial intelligence emerge, putting all of the above into question.

In Hixon, in 1948, Kiener, Laslhey and Simon argue that the behaviorist current does not have a sufficient scientific basis to explain human behavior and that this behavior should be planned, which should not come from outside but from inside the subject. This gave way to the emergence of artificial intelligence. Information processing theories refer to the formation of a series of networks.

Background of information processing theories.

The psychology of information processing began to take shape mainly between 1920 and 1960 as a consequence of two large groups: the United States and Great Britain. It is a long period that is motivated by the investigations of the soldiers in the wake of World War II. Initially the research is carried out in the laboratory and later it is transferred to the work centers. The main antecedents are Great Britain and the US between 1920 and 1960, specifically it takes place in research laboratories.

INVESTIGATIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN:

In Great Britain you will find the Cambridge Psychology Lab with Bartlett, As a researcher, he developed an analysis of real situations and the importance of the scheme as an element that allows us to understand the behavior of the individual in a given situation. The scheme is considered a memory trace that collects past sensations. Each new sensation that reaches the brain modifies the previous pattern. It has a cognitive character, since the schemes are abstract cognitive structures that are configured from the interaction with the environment. Therefore, the objective of the scheme is to organize the information and configure a new structure for it. This will later be called by Piaget "assimilation."

He studies human behavior through real situations, and for this he incorporates the concept of schema as something that explains human behavior, a trace in memory that collects past sensations, in such a way that each sensation that reaches the brain modifies the schema. Bartlett gives the scheme a cognitive character, in such a way that the schemes are cognitive structures of an abstract nature that are configured to the extent that the subject interacts with the environment. The objective of the scheme is to organize the information.

Research Center for Applied Psychology with Craik (Bartlett's disciple): Bartlett's earlier work continues from the demands of World War II. Craik, started the psychology unit in the 40s. He focuses on investigating the effects of cold and heat when executing a task, on the ability to process information when it appears from different sources and at times of reaction. The analysis aspects are as follows:

• Surveillance tasks faced with the difficulty of detecting submarines on radar screens.
• The effects of cold and heat on the difficulty of the task are analyzed.
• Information processing capacity from different sources.
• Study of reaction times to certain stimuli.
• Ability to process information from different sources at the same time.

The replacement in Craik's laboratory was BROADBENT, a disciple of Craik. Broadbent publishes a work called "Perception and Communication", in which he compiles the information processing tªs. It is a compilation of research and studies carried out up to that moment on information processing from the perspective of cognitive theories.

Broadbent is the first to establish that the nervous system must be understood as a network through which information flows, which is stored and allows decisions to be made. This SN lays the foundation for the first flowcharts. This is how we begin to talk about nodules, memory stores, coding, recovery ...

INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES:

We meet him Stevens Harvard University Psychoacoustics Laboratory, in which research focused on the impact of noise on the execution of the task was carried out.

On the other hand, in the US there is Reaction Psychology laboratory, With the help of fitness, which is dedicated to designing tasks for behavior profiles "what behaviors are effective for certain tasks", for this they work the perception of space and movement.

We also find the Air Force Psychology or Aviation Psychology Laboratory with Fitts. In it, different behavior patterns were investigated and analyzed to effectively carry out a task in relation to the perception of space and movement. Fitts is in charge of studying the most adaptive response patterns for each of the tasks that are executed.

INFLUENCES OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:

At the end of the 50s, as a result of previous research, Educational Psychology has received important influences. The work of all these laboratories reveals the influence of 3 currents:

1. The computers: Elements that allow us to process a lot of information and carry out many tasks just like the human brain. Thus arises the classic metaphor of the computer and the human.

As a consequence are the years of emotional intelligence. Computers are understood as elements that allow many actions to be carried out. This concept is transferred to the individual and prompted the study of many programs so that the subject could process a lot of information and solve problems. Presence of Simon and Newel in the development of the computer metaphor. The Artificial Intelligence considers that learning is the result of the interaction between the environment, knowledge and previous experience. Understanding knowledge as mental connections called schemas, not as stimulus-response associations. Therefore, learning will be the acquisition of different internal schemes of the subject.

They are capable of performing many tasks that were previously carried out by men. The idea of ​​the mind-computer metaphor leads to many investigations in which a human simulator is sought. It supposed the entire development of Artificial Intelligence in which the maximum exponent at that time is Turing. The AI ​​considers that learning is the result of three variables: Interaction with the environment, Previous experiences and Knowledge (formed by associations between mental structures).

Learning from this stream consists of acquiring new schemes. The concept of schema and learning constitute the provision of Cognitive Psychology.

2. Linguistic development à Is influenced by Chomsky with his studies related to language. Language device concept, which says that we are capable of perceiving information, processing, encoding and returning the information. Chomsky studies Psycholinguistics and tells us about an innate structure of schemas and another formed by the environment. Studies are produced on linguistic processes and language acquisition schemes. It seeks to analyze the structures that a subject uses to speak and learn.

3. Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Structures: Schema Formation à The studies of Piaget analyzing the structures of the internal processes that underlie the evolution of human behavior, incorporating the concepts of assimilation, arrangement of schemes ... It speaks of different states of the subjects, the subject acquires schemes from the inside out. The subject has certain schemes (structures) that allow him to interact with the environment, it is when cognitive dissonance occurs causing an imbalance. The subject restructures the information, produces new patterns and returns to equilibrium. The system works until information arrives that unbalances the subject. Piaget does not make a contribution to educational psychology as such, but does so in a partial way as it seeks to explain development through cognitive structure. Talk about the cognitive dissonance (assimilation and accommodation).

As a result of the influences received in the field of educational psychology, multiple publications are generated, in which BRUNER and AUSTIN stand out, who defend that cognitive processes are involved within learning strategies. They are the ones who introduce the strategies as a cognitive process. In turn, MILLER (magic number 7 + -2, unlimited memory) together with BALLAGHER and PRIBRAN considered that each individual is an information processor that encodes, stores and retrieves.

Around 1956, information processing theories began to emerge. Several studies are based on memory and computer simulation as a research method.

All of this leads to many scientific breakthroughs. Towards 1958 we find ourselves at the peak of the cognitive current, a current of information processing in which the explanation of human behavior goes through the study of memory in its entirety.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORIES ACCORDING TO SIEGLER:

According to Siegler, we say that information processing times have three characteristics. Siegler establishes three characteristics to define the information processing approach (thinking, mechanisms of change y self-modification):

Thought: It speaks to us of thinking in terms of manipulating and transforming information from memory in order to form concepts, reason, think critically, and solve problems. He considers that thinking is very flexible since it allows to adapt and adjust to changes. It is similar to declarative memory that we will see later. In terms of manipulating and transforming information in memory, in order to form concepts, reason or solve problems. This thinking allows subjects to adapt and adjust to changes; These changes occur as the subject interacts with the environment. The maximum restriction that thought has is the speed at which the subject can process the information.

The mechanisms of change: It establishes 4 mechanisms of change in the processing of information:

1. Coding. Process through which information is incorporated into the memory. This allows to speak of a selection and a transformation speaking of strategies of codification and selection of information. It refers to the process that allows information to be incorporated into memory.
2. Automation. Understood as the ability to process information with little or no effort, through age or through experience. They are the skills to process information with little or no effort. It is acquired progressively with the age or experience of the subject.
3. Choice of strategies. Mechanisms or abilities that capture information, select, discriminate and store (they are memory processes). They are mechanisms or procedures through which subjects know that they can process certain information.
4. The transference. Ability to use what I have learned in a context in another similar situation.

In this current (cognitivism) we do not speak of learning but of processing. It is behaviorism that speaks of learning.

• Self-modification: It is the knowledge and strategies that I modify or readjust according to the environment with which I interact. Ex: Adjusting the experience of driving a car to learn to drive a motorcycle. Here the concept of metocognitive strategy is already incorporated. This concept is associated with METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES: planning, self-regulation, control y evaluation. The context in children plays a fundamental role and they must know how to coordinate: knowledge, strategies and the environment or context through Metacognitive strategies, since:

1. THEY PLAN: to the extent that the child considers how to make a conceptual map.
2. SELF-CONTROL: I'm doing it right, wrong ...
3. EVALUATE: Has the result of the task gone well?

 

2. THEORIES OF INFORMATION PROCESSING.

INTRODUCTION TO THE THEORIES OF INFORMATION PROCESSING:

We are in the SECOND METAPHOR: LEARNING AS A KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION, where the variable O appears for the first time. The emergence of information processing theories is as a consequence of the scarcity of ideas defended by behaviorism.

While behaviorism essentially focuses on the study of learning through theories based on the analysis of stimuli and their responses, cognitive theories are based on internal mental processes (organism). The conception of the human being as an information processor is based on the analogy between the human mind and the functioning of a computer. The computer is adopted as a metaphor of human cognitive functioning.

The information processing has generated above all memory theories. Information processing theories focus on the way in which people pay attention to events in the environment, encode the information to be learned and relate it to the knowledge they already have, store new information in memory and retrieve it. when you need it.

Memory is the ability that human beings have to record, retain and retrieve information. For this it carries out processes of:

• Coding (registration of information).
• Storage (save the information).
• Recovery (Locate the information when we want to use it).

Only if these three processes occur will we be able to remember.

Information processing begins when a stimulus (visual, auditory) impresses one or more senses (hearing, touch, sight). The sensory memory receives the stimulus and holds it for a moment (Sensory register à 1 to 4 seconds).

The SENSORY MEMORY has the function of maintaining the information for the time strictly necessary for it to be selectively serviced  e identified for further processing.

The material is completely disorganized, like a copy of the objects and events of the world around us. Our mind tends to impose organization and interpretation on all input information. This is where two processes occur:

• Perceptual: Pattern recognition. It is the process of giving meaning to the stimulus, comparing the input with the known information.
• Attention XNUMX-hour: Process of selecting some of the many possible data.

BROADBENT FILTER MODEL (1958)

The information is received in the sensory memory by DIFFERENT CHANNELS. The attention span is limited, barely attending to a few stimuli at a time.

One of the channels is chosen for the perceptual system to process. The rest of the channels are deactivated. The basis of the selection would be perceptual (attention depends on the meaning of the stimulus). We actually continue to receive some of the information from the other channels. The filter would actually be an attenuator that lowers the unattended channels. All inputs are attended to enough to activate a part of long-term memory. Then an entry is chosen depending on the context. The factors are as follows:

• Number of information sources.
• Similarity of sources.
• Complexity of the sources.

Unpredictable fonts tend to grab our attention. Highly predictable sources do not capture our attention, as there is gradual habituation to continuous stimuli.

People with attention disorders CANNOT EFFICIENTLY DISCARD IRRELEVANT STIMULES, thus overloading their processing system and the main task being lost amid competing inputs.

Degree of motor skills of attention:

1. Autonomous processes: they do not require much attention and can run in parallel with other processes.
2. Controlled processes: they must be executed in series because they require a lot of attention.
   1. As a controlled task becomes habitual, it eventually becomes automatic.
   2. For an input to be perceived, it must be kept in the sensory register and compared with knowledge in Long Term Memory.
   3. Perception depends on the objective (physical) characteristics of the information and the subject's previous experiences.

Pattern recognition proceeds in two ways:

1. DOWN-UP processing à Analyze the features and creates a meaningful representation to identify the stimuli.
2. UP-DOWN processing à Expectations are formed about perception grounded in context. Facts are anticipated and perceived accordingly.
   1. Expectations influence perception. We perceive the expected and not the unexpected.
   2. Two principles of perception:
      1. Perceptual predisposition: we see what we expect or want to see.
      2. Perceptual constancy: we keep the characteristics of the stimulus stable even if the environmental conditions vary.

The information is transferred to the OPERATIONAL MEMORY (SHORT-TERM OR WORKING), which corresponds to the state of alert, or what one is aware of at that moment. For the unit to be retained in this memory you must review, otherwise the information is lost quickly (about 15-25 seconds).

While the information is in the operative memory, the knowledge related to the LONG TERM MEMORY, the permanent memory, is activated and placed in the operative memory in order to integrate the new information. Therefore, the working memory contains the new and retrieved information from the MLP.

The working memory has a limited capacity, this being the Miller magic number 7 (+/- 2).

BUFFER MODEL

Information is processed by filling slots until there is no space left. To obtain more space, information must be forgotten, encoded or recoded. The recoding process It consists of combining pieces of information in a way that takes up less space in operating memory.

There are two types of review:

1. Maintenance review à It is limited to keeping the information in the OM long enough so that it can be acted upon (eg, repeating a telephone number).
2. Elaborative Review à Transfer information to long-term memory. Establish relationships with other concepts that are already in the MLP and develop new associations with those concepts.

CODING consists of placing the information in a meaningful context, which allows its subsequent retrieval.

OPERATING MEMORY:

Working memory has three components (Gathercole, 1993): the central executive, the articulatory link, and the visuospatial agenda.

1. Central executive à Regulates the flow of information through the operative memory and directs the storage and retrieval of information to the MLP.
2. Articulatory tie à Stores the material in a short verbal code (It is important in the reading process).
3. Viso-spatial Agenda à Processes and stores visual and spatial information, including material encoded as visual images.

The functions of the working memory are as follows:

• Compare the information we receive with what we have stored in the MLP.
• Combine or integrate the material to be learned with the organized body of knowledge that we have stored in the MLP.
• Review of the information for its maintenance in the MO or its elaboration to transfer to the MLP.
• Generate a response.

SPECIFIC THEORIES OF INFORMATION PROCESSING:

TªS OF THE ADAPTIVE CONTROL OF THE ANDERSON PROCESSING:

It is the adaptive control theory of thought or activation theory Framed in the second metaphor. The idea is that higher cognitive processes (memory, language ...) are different manifestations of the same system. This system is made up of three memories related to each other: declarative memory, procedural memory and operational or working memory.

The central idea is that all cognitive processes (memory, language, problem solving, induction and deduction ...) are different manifestations of the same system, a system made up of 3 memories: One declarative, procedural or procedural and another working memory or short term.

1. DECLARATIVE MEMORY:

(It provides information about how the world is organized and what happens in it. Declarative memory tells us how the world's information is organized and what happens in it. Anderson differentiates between three types of memory). Declarative memory It provides information about how the world is and how it should be organized, it refers to knowledge, what something is, to knowledge of the world and distinguishes three types of declarative memory:

• Time chains
• Images
• Propositions

It is a memory with static character, slower to activate than procedural and occurs at a more conscious level than procedural or procedural, through recall or recognition tasks, it is the memory that provides information to carry out a procedure. In the tasks that measure it, it is necessary to use tests of recognition or remembrance. This memory is kept in the MLP to be activated when related information appears in the MCP, and is represented through propositional networks, it is activated through propositional networks, which Broadbent called flow charts. They represent the knowledge that each subject has and tries to unite the old knowledge with the new one, expanding the information networks. That is, it remains active in long-term memory so that short-term memory can retrieve it when there is information that seems to be related. This information is represented by propositional networks or flow networks (according to Broadbent) and the idea is based on Ausubel's significant after learning and thus expand the networks (the objective of the networks is to increase the nodes).

2. PROCEDURAL MEMORY:

Contains information for skill execution. It is activated by declarative memory. Is a memory dynamic, when activated transforms the stored information. Once this memory is activated, it operates very quickly and automatically. An evolutionary component is involved in the development of this memory.

Procedural or procedural memory It contains information on how to do something, how to execute the knowledge that is in declarative memory, and is activated by it. It is a more dynamic memory, when it is activated the result is not only information memory but also transformation of the information given, and once it is mastered it operates automatically. The knowledge that is mastered from this memory depends on practice and feedback, which is why it often takes years to get incorporated into the normal functioning structure of the subject. Example: We learn to ride a bike and we recover it over the years.

It is that memory that has information to execute a series of skills, these skills are activated by declarative memory. According to Gagné, it will be based on conditional knowledge (if you meet the requirements, this can happen, or if I do this, that can happen); Unlike declarative memory, it is more dynamic, in such a way that when the result is activated it is not a simple memory but a transformation of the given information, once it is mastered it operates quickly or autonomously, because it is knowledge unlike declarative memory that depends on practice and feedback has an evolutionary character; so it takes years to get incorporated into the dynamics of the subject, but it is also true that unlike declarative memory it remains longer in time.

3. SHORT-TERM, OPERATIONAL OR WORKING MEMORY:

En short-term or working memory declarative and procedural join. Given this, Anderson's theory refers to 3 stages, these stages not only refer to motor skills but also in problem solving, decision making or concept formation. The three successive stages will be explained below.

Anderson considers that learning takes place in three stages that are developed progressively and that it refers not only to motor skills, but also to related skills, such as problem solving, decision-making and processes of categorization. It refers to motor skills (typical of procedural memory), skills related to problem solving, decision making and categorization. These three stages are the declarative-interpretative one, the one that refers to the transformation of knowledge and another of adjustment processes.

• DECLARATIVE-INTERPRETIVE STADIUM:

It initiates knowledge in such a way that the information that reaches the system is encoded in declarative memory within a network of nodes. The more nodes the better. It tends to be flexible but has difficulties due to short-term memory limitations. It is important to promote the automation of knowledge, that is why we move on to the 2nd stage. To make room for the new information that comes in. Learning begins at this stage, the information received from the outside is encoded through a series of networks. He says that possibly this is one of the reasons why the automation process should occur, which makes learning effective in the following stages.

It refers to the learning that begins here in such a way that the information that comes from the outside is encoded in the declarative memory within a network of nodes, has a flexible character and presents difficulties due to the limited capacity of short-term memory. Learning starts here. Information from the outside is encoded in declarative memory within a network of nodes. It is flexible in nature and presents difficulties due to the limited capacity of the MCP. That is why it needs the following two stages. This stage consists of the theoretical part of knowledge.

* Ex: Have knowledge of the bicycle, what parts are made of it and what is necessary to handle it.

• KNOWLEDGE TRANSFORMATION:

Transform declarative knowledge into procedural; It refers to the compilation or transformation of information into processes. It is carried out through two threads:

Proceduralization Process through which the information stored in the nodules is converted into productions. This process produces qualitative changes in knowledge since it is activated automatically and quickly. It is linked to practice. It makes the information that is stored in the short-term memory as nodules that are transformed into productions, thanks to these productions the knowledge is activated automatically, quickly and without memory demand, that is, it changes the declarative knowledge in what a procedure. The information stored in nodes is translated into productions, this causes qualitative changes in knowledge since it allows the information to be processed automatically and quickly in memory.

The next thread is the Composition: à It is about the union of different productions to make one. It makes the different production chains formed in the first process merge into one. The sequence of the different productions that have taken place as a result of the changes in the previous sub-process. I transform theoretical knowledge to practical knowledge, but the adjustment that I make to make it practical is different for each subject so that my initial scheme before riding a bike, for example, is not the same as someone else's initial scheme. It is the composition resulting from the new learning. Ex: Riding a bicycle. You use the prior knowledge you possessed (at the declarative-interpretive stage) and carry out the action.

• ADJUSTMENT PROCESSES:

For Anderson there are three: Generalization, discrimination and strengthening.

* Ex: A small child is taught that the animal with four legs and a tail is the dog. In the process of generalization, the child believes that every animal with these characteristics is a dog. In the discrimination phase it differentiates the but of other animals, and in the strengthening it not only discriminates but also differentiates the characteristics of each one.

It is a process made up of three automatic mechanisms:

Generalization  It is the range that I have established of nodes or networks that I apply to all contexts, insofar as there is a similarity. It increases knowledge in the maximum number of possible contexts. It refers to the ability to increase the range of the application of the production learned thanks to the similarity of the new conditions that are presented to me. It consists of increasing the range of application of a production or increasing the number of productions.

The discrimination is to reduce the scope of a production. This production that I have learned has a restricted range of application. That range would refer to the uniqueness of each of the situations that apparently are similar to those that appear to me. It refers to restricting the habit of applying a production.

 Strengthening What it does is keep the production that has a more possible and stronger match with a similar production, it also keeps the production that is most likely to be used. Those productions that most closely match each other remain. The strongest are those that are more likely to be used.

RUMELHART INFORMATION PROCESSING Tª:

Talk about knowledge through schema formation. Schemas are concepts available to the information processing system, they are mental processes that contain both knowledge and skills. And they constitute a strategy to represent the knowledge that we have stored in memory. Schemas are mental structures that underlie human knowledge and skills. It is a mechanism that allows us to represent the information that we have in memory both in the short term and in the long term. The goal is to analyze how knowledge is represented and how that stored knowledge is used.

For Rumelhart, schemas are concepts available to the information processing system. They aim to analyze how knowledge is represented and how stored knowledge is used. To meet these objectives it has a series of functions, specifically three:

• Coding: It is a process through which information is selected, abstracted, interpreted and integrated. It includes a series of processes:

It is on the one hand selection: Discriminate relevant information from that which is not. What is necessary for the selection to be reduced is that there is a relevant scheme in the memory, that it is activated and that the information that comes from outside is relevant. Selection is a process through which important information is identified. The selection criteria are that a related scheme exists in memory, that it is capable of being activated and that it is important to be incorporated into that activated system.

After selection, the next thing that is given is abstraction, which is to extract the most important, forgetting the secondary or irrelevant elements, in order to prevent the MCP from becoming saturated. Abstraction refers to the ability of the individual to extract the essence of that information, which makes it possible not to overload the MCP with information.

The following is the interpretation, which consists of making inferences from the selected information to facilitate its understanding. It is the ability of the subject to make inferences in order to promote understanding.

Immediately afterwards the integration, which is the incorporation of the material already selected to the schemes that you already had. This implies either a modification of the schema or the formation of a new schema of knowledge. The new information that has been interpreted is incorporated into the schemes that we already had.

• Recovery:

Remembrance or recognition tasks that activate patterns already integrated into memory. The task of recognition is easier than that of memory. Through remembrance or knowledge tasks that activate the schemes that he already had.

• Understanding Guides

Composed of hypotheses and inferences. The scheme is dedicated to encoding, retrieving information and giving it meaning. Hypotheses and inferences are the ways of understanding.

Do Rummelhart schemas represent knowledge and how can it be stored and retrieved?

• They are knowledge structures that have information on the values ​​that a variable or a concept can adopt to promote understanding.
• They have the ability to fit into each other by forming a hierarchy.
• They represent generic concepts.
• They represent episodic and semantic knowledge.
• They are activated only if a part of them do.

According to Rummelhart, schemas are represented through propositional networks. These networks are knowledge structures that have information about a concept. They also have the ability to fit into each other through a hierarchical structure. They represent both generic and episodic or semantic knowledge and are only activated if a part of them does.

For Rumelhart, they can be three types of learning: Growth, adjustment and restructuring.

• Increase:

Basic mechanism by which the system acquires data. But the information that is being learned does not by itself modify the structure of the knowledge that I already have. For that you need integrated processes, adjustment and restructuring. It is a learning of facts, it does not modify the internal structure of the schemes or generate new schemes. For this you need the other two processes.

• Adjustment:

On the one hand, it is the mechanism for evaluating or modifying the schemes. It is carried out when the information from the outside cannot fit as it is in the scheme that I already have. The adjustment occurs when I can fit the node in different contexts, in different situations. The adjustment is the result of practice. It activates the evaluation of the available systems by modifying the values ​​assigned to the schema, generalizing the stored information. The adjustment is the result of practice, the modification or expansion of the field in which this scheme was used has a fundamental consequence.

• Restructuring:

I develop a new knowledge network as a result of the adjustment process. It consists of the formation of new knowledge schemes. The scheme is elaborated or modified. Processes of analogy or induction-reduction are involved. It consists of the formation of new structures. It is done through induction and analogy (it refers to similar concepts).

Rummelhart understands that learning is like a constructive process insofar as it not only finds a hole in the schemes it already has, but also generates a new structure of knowledge.

GAGNÉ INFORMATION PROCESSING Tª:

For Gagné, knowledge is mentally represented through a series of interrelated schemes. Gagné lays the foundation a bit between the second and third metaphors. For Gagné knowledge is represented through propositions, productions, images and diagrams.

Knowledge is mentally represented through a variety of interrelated and independent ways. They are the propositions, productions, images and diagrams.

Proposition it is the declarative memory of the previous ones. Eg: A concept map. They constitute the basic units of information, they are ideas that are related to each other in memory through propositional networks, which are those that transfer information from the sensory register to the MCP and the MLP. All new propositions are represented in flow diagrams, which represent the connections between new information and stored information (Ausubel calls this meaningful learning). They constitute the basic unit of information, they configure what we know as ideas, these are related to each other through networks. These networks constitute a hypothetical construct because they are not observable but they constitute the mechanism through which information passes from short-term memory to long-term memory.

Productions collect in that network the information of acts, and the condition so that those facts are taken. He understands it as "I execute something if and then if". The information that comes from abroad is stored to the extent that a series of conditions occur. Talk about the relationship: Yes ... Then.

The images  They are analog representations that allow working with as much information as possible because the capacity of the MCP is limited. Sometimes they are activated automatically and in other people you have to make them aware. They are analog representations that allow working with as much information as possible given the limited capacity of the MCP. * Ex: metaphor.

Schemes they are organizing structures of knowledge. They can be used consciously or activated automatically. They are mechanisms that allow organizing knowledge. They can be conscious (they guide the retrieval of stored knowledge) or unconscious or automatic.

The expert has a greater number of propositional networks, uses many schemes and analogies because he has a deep analysis of the information. In the case of the novice, it has lighter propositional networks, does not use schemes or analogies, and keeps the most superficial information.